NOTES TOPIC SEVEN: POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS AND MODERN ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS IN EUROPE

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What is Political Revolutions?

Political Revolutions is a radical change in the way a society is governed, usually from a certain political system to another through overthrown of the existing leadership or government and replacing a new order which consider to be better than the one before.



THE PRINCIPLE WHICH GOVERNED POLITICS IN EUROPE BEFORE THE RISE OF NEW ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS (DEMOCRACY).

Absolutism of the monarchs. This was one of the main principles that governed politics in Europe. Throughout Europe in the period before the French revolution of 1789, the government was in the hands of few individuals. The individuals had absolute power and in most cases their positions were hereditary. In France, the king was above the law and not controlled by it. He had power to have an individual arrested and imprisoned during “the king’s pleasure” through the famous “letter de cachet”.

The principle of “Divine Right of the King” this principle stipulated that the European King both in England and France was given directly by God. This implied that they had final say and decision in everything. They were born kings naturally, given that monarchy was hereditary in Europe, and the Kings were answerable to anyone. Any opposition to the King was an attack on God himself

Restrictions of Active resistance to the King. However tyrannical Kings’ act may be, they never to be active resisted. If the King orders an act directly against God’s commands. The subject should disobey but must submissively accept any penalty of disobedience. (The doctrine of “passive obedience”).

Monarch is the best form of government, but other forms are valid. A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, is head of state for life or until abdication.

Kingship making. Monarchs’ position was hereditary. Rulers ascended to the position by birth rights thus he/she succeeded the farther or close relative like brother, sister or a cousin. That meant the position of a ruler was not subjected to be elected or appointed by public consent but by royal family. In most cases monarchs named their successors.

The Church and the State were Inseparable. There was a strong relationship between the church and the state in Europe before the rise of democracy. The official faith or religion in France was supposed to be Catholics. The pop could even influence the decisions of the kings of France. In Britain, the official faith or religion was Anglican. All members of the royal family had to be Anglicans.

The feudal system. Under feudalism, European societies were stratified into antagonistic classes, the upper class consisting of the Nobility, the clergy and landlords enjoyed the privileged position of the state, they held political powers and owned property especially land and also were exempted from taxation.

A weak parliamentary system. Parliamentary system had existed for many centuries but undemocratically. Parliaments were mainly consultation bodies and meetings of the monarchs with the nobles and the aristocrats and not a lawmaking institution. It was called by the King and not elected by the masses and served the interests of the monarch and nobility.

It is quite clear that, by this principle, the rights and freedoms of individual and collectives were compromised at their own expense thereby laying a ground for the struggles in demand for democracy.

MAJOR POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE.​

These were the fundamental change that took place in political sector of the European countries which eliminated Feudalism and gave birth to the Industrial Revolution or capitalism and led to the rise of bourgeoisie classes. (ie merchants, Industrialist bankers etc). A revolution is always forcible, pervasive and often violent change of social or political order brought about by a sizeable segment of country’s population.

The political revolution included:-

French revolution in 1789

English Revolution of 1640 - 1689).

Glorious Revolution of 1688

The 1848 Revolutions in Europe

Britain before undergoing the political revolution had experienced various political wars like wars of Roses within the ruling houses of Britain, One hundred years wars with France.

THE ENGLISH POLITICAL REVOLUTION 1640 – 1689​

English political revolution is a forceful overthrow of the Monarchy system of dictatorship under the control of kings’ or queens organized by middle classes (Bourgeoisies) to establish democratic system of governance. The 17th century English Revolution can be categorized into two phases; The English Civil War or Puritan Revolution(1642 - 1649) and the English Glorious Revolution 1688 – 1689.



The English civil war/ puritan Revolution, (1640 – 1689)

The English revolution of 1640-60 was a great social movement in Britain which aimed at overthrowing the absolute monarchy of the Stuart dynasty. Historically, the English revolution can be traced to the reign of Tudor Family and Stuart.

 

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Tudor Monarchy originated from the “Feudal Era” and its rule began with a series of kings and queens, including: King Henry VII (1485-1509); King Henry VII(1509-1549); King Edward (Henry’s son) (1547-1553); Lady Jane Grey (1558-1603), then followed Queen Mary I(1553-1558) and Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603).

After the death of Queen Elizabeth, a King called Stuart took over the reign, started a new dynast (the Stuart dynasty). And declared that “Kings draw their authority from God”

From 1642 to 1652, a series of misunderstanding between the followers of King Charles I of England and parliament took place. (Charles was the second son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England, where he spent much of the rest of his life.)

Oliver Cromwell and O’Connor overthrow King Charles I and executed him 1649. Unfortunately Oliver Cromwell, who took over political power, proved to be a ruthless military dictator. He held power until his death in 1658

The son of former King Charles I, King Charles II, became the King of England and Scotland. He ruled England through the constitution and parliament. This made the English people very happy as they had a King once more.

Following King Charles II was King James who came to the throne in 1685. He disrupted the political situation with dictatorship and absolutism in the way he handled government affairs. He was eventually removed from power peacefully by the English people led by the protestants in 1688. Then the parliament peacefully invited King William III from Holland with his wife Mary Stuart, to become King and Queen of England. This revolution was called the “Glorious Revolution” because it was not accompanied by bloodshed like the one that dethroned King CHARLES I.

CAUSES OF THE ENGLISH CIVIL / PURITAN REVOLUTION.​

The theory of Divine rights of Kings.

This theory in England was advocated by James I and later on inherited and implemented by Charles I and James II. According to this theory King was the representative of God. Therefore any person or institutions that attempted to challenge the King was also Considered to be English people were illegally arrested tortured and imprisonment without any fair trial. This fact culminated to the revolution.

Prolonged conflict between the monopoly and parliament.

The conflict led to the King to dismiss the parliament. The King wanted money from the parliament but the parliament refused to grant money to the King. The King wanted money so as to wage war against Scotland. Therefore in 1640 he dissolved the parliament hence brought dangerous situation in England.

Kings Extravagance.

The Stuart were extravagant, they always called parliament for money for spending in unnecessary requirements. This situation increased misunderstanding btn the King and the parliament hence the revolution.

Religious Conflicts.

There were religious conflicts in 1531 where King Henry VII declared himself the king of Church of England; this action drew resistance from some of the church which led to the rise of a group known as puritans.

The puritans were dissatisfied with the church and decided to separate themselves from the main stream, the king responded by persecuting them and calling them enemies. This led to the outbreak of the English revolution.



The roles of Oliver Cromwell.

Oliver Cromwell rose as powerful and courageous man due to the ongoing religious controversy and intolerable situation in England Cromwell led the parliament and the swept away the King’s

absolutism. Cromwell suggested assassination of King Charles so as to get rid of all form of dictatorship in England. Cromwell died in 1658.

Emergency of Commercial Bourgeoisie Class.

The emergency of a bourgeoisie class contributed to the outbreak of the English revolution. This class was determined to conduct business activities in England thus any class of people that tried to hinder their goals was overthrown. The monarchy had failed to introduce liberal economic policies that would support capitalism thus the commercial bourgeoisie joined with the peasants to stage the revolution.

Heavy Taxation, The merchants were gaining a lot of influence, hence the king decided to impose heavy taxes on the merchants so as to control their growing influence. Taxes hindered business activities which forced the merchants to rise up and overthrow the government.

Role of English Philosophers.

The English philosophers also contributed to the pot break of the English. Their writings enlightened the English people about weakness of old system. John Locke an English philosopher attacked the monarchy as being autocratic and oppressive in nature. John Locke wanted a king who will be accountable to the people. These writings partly prompted the English people to stage a revolution.

The emergence of classical economists played huge role in the outbreak of the English revolution. Economists such as Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Thomas Malthus advocated private property and individual freedom in economic life of a society. Their views brought awareness among the people thus leading to the English evolution.

EFFECT OF ENGLAND REVOLUTION (1640-1689)

The absolute monarchy system was replaced by constitutional monarchy system. Hence the power was restrain in the parliament which become more powerful then the crown it could now control the army Judiciary and finance

The rise of middle class (i.e merchants, industrialist, bankers etc) as a dominant deviation of the England economy. The feudal practiced were all abandoned replaced by modern capitalist practices.

Distributions of church land. The church land was confiscated and given to the peasants for Agriculture activities which stopped feudalism. The English revolution separated church from state.

There was Unification of state. Which had started since the reign of Tudor Henry. This implied the use of uniform currency, Abolition of Internal tariffs and the use of uniform commercial policies. The importance of this was widen internal market.

The English revolution led to the occurrence of other revolution in the world eg France, Russia and other European countries and Asian countries.

The Enactment of that “Bill of Rights” in 1688 there was the foundation of democracy. The bill provided for freedom of expression and protection of people property. This created conducive environment for maintains of peace and security.

Introduction of Free Trade.

The new government pursued the laissez faire policy whereby it did not intervene in economic activities. The government allowed the domestic economy to operate fairly with few controls. The absence of government interference encouraged the investors to increase production thus leading to the industrial revolution.

Land Consolidation.

The revolution abolished feudal land tenure system and put land in the hands of the capitalists who carried out mechanized agriculture which paved way for the rise of the agrarian revolution. The agrarian revolution played a great role in the rise of capitalism.

After the Revolution the King became Ceremonial Title

This was because the one who was given power to control the government was the prime minister under the parliamentary government therefore prime minister became the head of the government and the king became a ceremonial leader.

 

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THE ENGLISH GLORIOUS REVOLUTION. (1688 - 9)

This was a revolution which took place in 1688/89, overthrowing King James II through peaceful ways. This was because he failed to rule constitutionally like King Charles II. A number of rights, including the freedom of worship and constitutional rule had been back to England by King Charles. The failure of King James II to rule democratically put him at odds with all religious groups in England, hence the parliament invited William III and his wife Mary Stuart, daughter of James II to become King and Queen England “Without Bloodshed’ and James II fled to France. The revolution is called the Glorious Revolution as there was no bloodshed.



Causes of the revolution.

Religious issues. The effort of James II to restore Catholicism in England bothered the English people.

Failure to King James II to abide the constitution.

The acceptance of King William and Queen Mary from Holland to take the throne

Dictatorial leadership of King James II, for example he overturned the freedom of religion and religious tolerance.

King extravagance.

The role of writers and philosophers.

Its Impact.

After the revolution the King became ceremonial title, because the one who was given power to control the government was the prime minister under the parliamentary government therefore prime minister became the head of the state and the King became a ceremonial leader.

Politically the revolution led to the overthrown of the absolute monarchy and the capitalist formed the republic government based on parliamentary supremacy controlled by the capitalists.

The royal army and soldiers started to be under the control of the government established by the capitalists.

The government fund stated to be controlled and approved by the parliament; this means that the parliament had power to budget the government expenditure as it was during monarchy system of the king.



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 – 1799.

A sudden overthrow of the privileges of feudal lords and absolute aristocracy under king louis XVI his wife Marie Antoinete. The revolution took place in 1789 – 1799 in the approximate period of 10 years. A revolution occurs not because people are just interested in changes but their certain factors on the ground that forces them to stage a revolution.

The French revolution of 1789 marked a turning point in the political history of France. It destroyed a well established monarchy and replaced it with a republican government.

AIMS THE FRENCH REVOLUTION​

Abolition of Monarchy; the French revolution aimed to liberate the people of France from dictatorship and obtain greater power for the Third estate, through break ng down the absolutism of French monarchy and topple the aristocracy.

The need for a secular and democratic Republic; the French revolution reinforced the introduction of a constitution to limit the power of the upper class in the making of decisions for the country and for lower class to have more power and freedom within the government and in their daily life.

To bring social necessary changes based on liberalism; the revolution aimed at creating and extension of civil rights, with equality before the law, careers open to talents and free participation in election or certain government organs.

Introduction of a Representative National Assembly; the third estate demanded for a new National Assembly to guarantee equal representation of all pcople regardless of their economic status.

Creation of a sense of common identity; the French revolution was fought to abolish special fiscal privileges, seigniorial dues owed by peasants to lords, internal tariffs and the establishment of uniform tax system based in principle on one’s income.

To address financial crisis; the main purpose of French revolution was to address the financial problems of the regime and improve the economic well-being of the third estate







Causes of the French revolution.

Financial crisis. The financial crisis was the most immediate and paramount cause of the French revolution. In 1789, the French national treasury ran bankrupt to the extent of failing to pay workers. The bankrupt was due to the frequent wars which France fought example the seven years war with Britain (1756 – 1763) over colonies in India and Canada, and American war of Independence. The bankrupt was also caused by the luxury life at the king’s palace. This crisis worsened the problems of the French thus contributing to the revolution.



Despotic aristocratic nature of the King Louis. The French aristocracy was despotic; all French kings right from Louis XIV, XV and XVI were despotic kings, whose powers could not be questioned. They possessed all political powers like making all important political decisions and policies. There was no written constitution to check the powers of the King. There was this meant that, the king’s word was the law, example; King Louis the XVI ones remarked that “something is legal because I wish it” this kind of despotism made the revolution inevitable by 1789.



Character of King Louis XVI. There was a weak administration in France especially that of Louis XVI. He was corrupt, inefficient and inconsistent in his policies, that is he could at times show signs of helping the peasants but shortly thereafter he withdraws his good intention.

Beside the above the king was under the strong influence of his wife Marie Antoinette, she was a Austrian princess who was hated by the French people because she was not ready to help peasants. d).French class structure. The maintenance of discriminative classes contributed to the outbreak of the French revolution. The French population was divided into three discriminative classes namely the first estate, second estate and third estate. The first estate consisted of the Nobility who enjoyed the highest salaries and key positions in the government and military. The second estate comprised of the clergy (Bishops and Priests). This grouped lived in urban areas and owned large estates of land and were exempt from paying taxation. The last class consisted of the peasants who paid all taxes both direct and indirect. The problems of the third estate forced them to stage a revolution in 1789.

Intellectual movements. These intellectual movements especially those of philosophers played a significant role in enlightening the French people about the political and economic crisis in France. For example Voltaire (1694 – 1776), Montesquieu (1698 – 1735) and Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778). They came with ideas of liberty, fraternity and equality. They exposed the abuse of power by the government philosophers such as Voltaire advocated for separation of power in the government. The enlightenment of the French people about their political forced them to stage a revolution in 1789.

American war of independence. The American war of independence led to both economic and the political effects which were exploited by the rich middle class and the peasants to stage a revolution. Politically this war failed them with a strong desire for establishment of a democratic and constitutional government. Economically, the war partially worsened the financial crisis because it was expensive to maintain soldiers abroad.

 

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Economic crisis. During the 18th c, France experienced a rapid growth in her population and yet the agricultural and industrial production remained low thus leading to food shortage. There was also another problem of unemployment which affected the living standards of the people. Amidst this growing population and unemployment, there was also persistent inflation. These severe conditions forced the French to stage a revolution in 1789.





Dismissal of financial controllers. The dismissal of financial controllers had a role to play in the outbreak of the French revolution. Turgot and Necker had been appointed by the King to overseas the economic condition of France, but these were later dismissed following the advice of the Queen. The financial controllers revealed the heavy cost incurred y the King and his members.

The march of the women. The marching of the women at Versailles demanding bread, land and equality sparked off the French revolution. Marie Antoinette provoked the demonstrator by saying that “If you cannot afford bread, go and buy cakes” this statement made both the King and his members.

Contribution of French Revolution to the rise of democracy in Europe.

Abolition of an absolute monarchy. The French Bourbon Monarchy under King Louis XVI was put to an end. The suspension of the monarchy led to the establishment of constitutional parliament system by the revolutionaries.

Development of nationalism. With the establishment of a new constitution people felt having been protected by their government. This led to the rise of unity which brought people together. Also the abolition of the old feudal provinces in France unified the French in one consolidated government.

Planted new ideas of liberty, equality and Fraternity. Fraternity- sharing a common profession or interests

Liberty - State of being free within society from control or oppressive Equality - the state of being equal, especially in status, rights or opportunities.

Establishment of secular state. The church was separated from political affairs of France to serve as a religious body only. Church properties like land were distributed to the landless the bourgeoisie, peasants and serfs and that also contributed to the end of serfdom.

Abolition of the feudal privileges. Before the revolution the upper class of the Nobility and clergy enjoyed all privileges like state power, exemption from taxation, owning land. The position of Nobility and clergy were taken by the Bourgeoisie and peasants who introduced system in favour of majority.

Establishment of a republican government. The French revolution contributed to the destruction of the bourbon monarchy and put in place a republican government in 1792. This was the government that played a crucial role in the abolition of feudalism and the consequent rise of capitalism.

Adoption of a constitutional governance system. In place of the Divine Right of Kings’ doctrine of the “will of the people” gripped the public mind. This led to government by constitution and parliament which swept aside absolute powers of the monarch.

THE 1848 REVOLUTION IN EUROPE.​

1848 has been regarded as the year of revolution in Europe. The revolutions broke out mainly in France and the Austria Empire. There were mainly directed against the spirit of the Vienna Arrangement of 1815. In France, the 1848 revolutions contributed to the downfall of Louis Philippe and his Orleans monarchy, while in Austria Empire the 1848 revolutions lead to the downfall of Metternich.

Common features of the 1848 revolutions.

. All had a common desire of destroying the bad arrangement of the 1815 Vienna congress dictated over most Eastern and central European countries. For example Austrian foreign domination over Italian and Germany states, and the restored despotic rulers who were no longer popular.

. Urban based revolutions. The 1848 revolutions were urban centered and with less impact on the country side. They were common in cities like Paris, Berlin. Rome and Milan.

Lack of mass mobilization. The 1848 revolutions was started and led by intellectuals such as university professors, poets, journalists and teachers. The merchant class also took an active role in organizing the revolutions. The peasants were not actively involved and perhaps this explains why these revolutions were short lived.

Reaction against side effect of Industrial revolution.

The 1848 revolutions erupted in less industrialized countries of Europe such as France and Austria whose economies were based on Agriculture. The spread of the industrial revolution from Britain led to various effects which left many people dissatisfied. The workers were exploited and oppressed through low wages and long working hours.

Promotion of the French revolutionary ideals.

The 1848 revolutions promoted the ideals of the French revolution. There was a lot in common between the 1848 revolutions and the French revolution. There was formation of national guards to protect the gains of the revolutions, liberal constitutions were advocated for to protect people’s political liberty.S

CAUSES OF THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE.​

Nationalism.

Politically there was a strong spirit of nationalism among the Italians and Germans. They resented foreign domination of Austria and strongly advocated for national unity and national political independence. The spirit of nationalism thus contributed to the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions.

Liberal constitutions (liberalism)

The desire for liberalism had grown too strong especially in France and hungry. People demanded for political reforms of the existing political systems. They advocated for constitutional governments which by then were lacking. In France Louis Philippe had risen to power on the ticket of preserving constitutional rights of the French people but by 1848 the French were still denied expansion of franchise (voting rights).

In Hungary, the people demanded for independence and constitutional parliaments so that their political rights could be protected.

Widespread discontent.

The Metternich system had caused a lot of discontent in the Austrian empire. There was a package of strict regulations introduced by Metternich to preserve the spirit and arrangement of the Vienna settlement. Metternich always used force to check the growth of liberalism and nationalism. In 1819, he introduced the Carls bad law which banned people’s freedom. The part was concerned, political parties were banned and nationalist leaders were imprisoned. These conditions forced people to stage the 1848 revolutions.

Economic problems.

The spread of the Industrial revolution to the Austrian empire and France had side effects which forced the people to join the 1848 revolutions. The industrial revolution was championed by the capitalist who wanted to maximize profits by exploiting the workers. There was mass unemployment, low wages and long working hours. The masses demanded economic reforms but their respective government were slow to respond thus they decided to stage a revolution.

The role of socialists.

The ideas of socialism contributed to the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions in Europe. The socialists mobilized part in the 1848 revolutions. The workers were promised better working and living conditions.

Natural calamities.

Natural calamities partly sparked off the 1848 revolutions in France and the Austrian empire between 1846 and 1847, there was general bad weather in Austrian empire and France which was

 

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characterized by heavy rains which destroyed crops. The poor harvests were followed by severe food

shortages. To make matters worse, there was an outbreak of epidemics such as typhoid and cholera. These conditions create a good atmosphere for the 1848 revolution.

Chain reaction.

The success of the revolution in France of February 1848 inspired similar revolution throughout the Austrian empire because of common existing political, social and economic conditions. Following the revolution in France, Louis Philippe and his Orleans monarchy was pushed out of power. In March, the revolution spread to piedmont, Sicily and Prussia. It is from this point that historians concluded that “Whenever France coughs, the rest of Europe catches cold” the revolution in France provided a practical example to the already discontented masses in the Austrian empire.

Reaction against the Vienna Settlement (1814 - 15). The Vienna settlement was an International conference called by major European states to remark Europe immediately after the downfall of Napoleon I. All European states were represented but the major decision makers were Britain represented by her Prime Minister Lord Castlereagh, Austria by Emperor Francis Joseph and his chancellor Metternich. Prussia by King Frederick William IV, Russia by Tsar Alexander I and France by Bishop Talleyrand. Only Turkey was not represented. In this congress European diplomats made many territorial decisions. The chief goal of the conference was to establish a balance of power that would help to maintain peace in Europe which had been destabilized by Napoleon (Emperor of France 1799 - 1815)



How the Vienna Settlement/ congress contributed to the outbreak of the 1848 Revolutions?

Abused the principle of Nationalism. A number of European states were put under foreign domination for example, Italian, Germany states were put under Austria and other were combined against their will for example Belgium was combined with Holland.

Restore autocratic regimes. The restored monarchs were conservative and oppressive. They stood against reforms agitated for by the new forces of change like, liberalism and constitutionalism. Restored monarchs include, the bourbons in France, Ferdinand I in Naples and Victor Emmanuel in Piedmont. These were a source of unrest to contribute to the 1848 revolutions.

The balance power created favoured only the big four. This was done by sharing the territorial gains from the Napoleonic Empire. However, there lacked equal sharing as Austria took a lions share. Austria for example took the control of the Italian and Germany states and others in the Balkans like Hungary and Bohemia.

Heavy punishment given to France and her allies. The heavy punishment administered to France and her allies like Belgium and Saxony did not create room for reconciliation and instead built hatred against the Vienna developments.

Delayed the unification of Germany and Italy. Germany and Italian states were under Austrian domination. To maintain Austria dominance, Metternich used his high spy networks and military to suppress revolutionary and unification movements.

Gave birth to the Metternich and the congress systems. The two systems emerged to defend the conservative oppressive European regimes by standing against the new revolutionary forces like liberalism and nationalism. To protect conservatism, Metternich employed a repressive police and spy networks to crash all liberal and nationalist movements all over Europe.

ROLE OF THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS IN THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY​

Establishments of constitutions.

The revolution took place in 1848 contributed to the rise of democracy by facilitating the establishment of constitutions. During the 1848 revolutions, people demanded for political reforms of the existing political systems. They advocated for parliamentary democracy and constitutional governments which by then were lacking. In France, the Orleans monarchy was removed from power and constitutional government was established.

Demise of feudalism.

The 1848 revolution contributed to the destruction of feudalism and serfdom in Europe which contributed to the rise of democracy. The absolute monarchies were part and parcel of feudalism and serfdom thus creating a good atmosphere for the rise of democracy.

Rise of national consciousness.

1848 revolution played a crucial role in the rise of national consciousness (feeling) in Europe which contributed to the rise of democracy. In German and Italian states, there was a strong national feeling that aimed at achieving national unity and national political independence.

Overthrow of the papacy regimes.

The 1848 revolutions contributed to the rise of democracy in Europe by destroying feudalism and paving way for the rise of the merchant class which was very fundamental in the rise of capitalism and democracy in Europe.

Development of Religious tolerance.

Absence of religious freedom was an abuse to people freedom of choice and worship. Many states had adopted state religious like the Austrian empire where Catholicism had been declared a state religions and thus only Catholic could hold public office while others religion struggle against Austrian dominance and need for unification.

Rise and spread of European nationalism. The revolution reawakened European nationalist feelings with many nationalities under foreign dominance demanding for independence and others raising the need for national unification. For example Germany and Italian states intensified nationalist struggles against Austrian dominance and need for unification.

Although the 1848 revolutions generally failed, they provided important lessons for future nationalists and liberal leaders. They lead the ground for future dynamic and strong leadership that played a great role in the Italian and German unification. In case of Italy, they lead to the rise of Count Camilla Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II. In case of Germany, there was the rise of Otto Von Bismarck.