NOTES TOPIC EIGHT: THE CAPITALIST CRISES AND ALTERNATIVE GOVERNANCE SYSTEMS

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CHAPTER EIGHT
THE CAPITALIST CRISIS AND ALTERNATIVE GOVERNANCE SYSTEMS​

Capitalist crisis refers to the period of disruptions and downturns within the capitalist system. These crises manifest in various forms such as wars, economic recessions, depressions and financial crises.​

Example of these capitalist crises were include
I. First World War (1914 - 1918)
II. The Great Economic Depression (1929 - 1933)
III. Second World War (1939 - 1945)
NOTE: The first World War affected the European society in the economic, political and social fields. One of the result of WW1 is the rise of dictatorship systems in the world began in Europe and japan especially after the resolutions of the Versailles Peace Treaty signed in 1919.

THE RISE OF DICTATORSHIP IN GERMANY, ITALY AND JAPAN

One of the unforgettable frustrations among the capitalist nations is the 1914-1918 armed confrontation. What began as a relatively small conflict in southeast Europe became a war between European empires. Over 30 nations declared war between 1914 and 1918. The big powers of Europe; Britain, France, and Russia were fighting against Germany. This is one of the most gruesome wars in European history. Never before had there been such a conflict.​

A dictator is a political leader that holds absolute power over a country. No one is allowed to oppose their leadership and they are allowed to handle any national situation without approval from anyone. Dictatorship is the system of government whereby the ruling power is on the hand of a single person or minority. It is opposite to Democracy.​

The bitterest impact of World War One was the rise of dictatorial regimes in Europe. During the inter-war period, many European countries experienced periods of new governments. They were government ruled by dictators. European nations were in very bad economic situation as an outcome of the First World War. While striving to rebuild their economies, the Great Depression began in 1929 and added to their problems. These situations caused panic among the citizens. Hungry and hopeless people in many European nations wanted to see changes, thus they looked to powerful people they thought could solve the problems. The social miseries and economic distress resulted from the war and great depression created a climate for the rise of dictatorial regimes.
It all started in Italy, where an ambitious young man, Benito Mussolini, organized a new political party, the Fascists, and finally assumed power in 1922. While Mussolini was gaining power in Italy, Adolf Hitler was organizing the Nazi party in Germany. Hitler promised to restore Germany to its former political, economic and military position. He was appointed chancellor of Germany in 1933. From there, dictatorship spread to many other European nations like Spain and Portugal. Very few powers among the major European states, especially France and Great Britain remained democratic states. However, in this topic, the focus is Fascist regimes in three countries;​

DICTATORSHIP IN ITALY DICTATORSHIP IN GERMANY & DICTATORSHIP IN JAPAN

Fascism is a dictatorial ideology formulated by Benito Mussolini soon after the First World War. It is in other words a governmental system led by a dictator having complete power, forcibly suppressing of opposition and criticism.

The word 'fascism' draws its root from the Roman word 'Fascie' which means a bundle of rods around an axe, which was once the symbol of the power and authority during Roman Empire.
The period between 1914 and 1918 witnessed the occurrence of the world’s first global conflict, fought between two military camps; triple entente and triple alliance, which ended with the victory of Britain with her allies (triple entente). The confusion in Italy started in 1914, when the war started. A debate developed in Italy between the nationalists who wanted to enter the war and the Socialists and others who were against the war. The socialists, greatly opposed Italy’s decision to join the war, on ground that the war was planned by capitalists, and thus their nation would achieve nothing rather that suffer the consequences. The following year, in 1915 the Allies convinced Italy to join them, thus Italy had signed the secret Treaty of London (Anglo-Italian agreement of 1915). In this treaty Britain and France wanted Italy to join their side promising her large sections of territories.
Italy therefore, was a victorious, not defeated power at the end of the First World War. However, although spent a lot to finance the war, and emerged victorious at the end, Italy was not given the promised by the triple entente in the 1915 agreement. Thus after World War I, Italy was like other defeated nations, rocked by economic problems, the rise of communist movements, political turmoil. The Italian civilian government proved weak to deal with the problems resulted from war. It was around these circumstances, when Benito Mussolini with his fascist party came into power.​

WHO IS BENITO MUSSOLINI?

Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was born in Predappio on July 29, 1883 in Italy. His father was a blacksmith and his mother was a schoolteacher. After his education life, he became a schoolteacher and journalist. He was active member of Italy’s socialist party before becoming a fascist, and the editor of the party's daily paper, Avanti. Because he supported Italy’s decision to join the war, Mussolini was expelled from the Socialist Party. With these new ideas, Mussolini established a new paper called Il Popolo ‘]d'Italia (People of Italy).​

After the end of the war, the socialists were becoming popular with their movements, and Italy was politically very instable. As Italian government proved failure to overcome the situation, in 1919 Mussolini established the Fascio Italiani di Combattimento (Italian Combat Squad) consisting of ex-soldiers - known for their black shirts. Engaged in violent attacks on strikers in cities and engaged in violence with the socialist groups in the countryside. Mussolini's squads were more famous for their violence than their policies. The combat group turned into a political party (Fascist Party), and became official political party in 1921.
Italy seemed to be slipping into political chaos during 1920’s, and the newly formed political party by Benito seemed accepted by the majority Italians. In October 1922, Benito Mussolini who presented himself as the only man capable of restoring order, and his supporters of the National Fascist Party, popular as “The Black Shirts” marched on Rome to demand the resignation of liberal Prime Minister Luigi Facta and the appointment of a new government. As the marching approached Rome, Prime Minister had resigned and King Victor Emmanuel III invite Mussolini to form a government, and named him as the head of government.​

ITALY UNDER MUSSOLINI

As shown above, Mussolini was appointed the prime minister of Italy in 1922 following the Rome march. After becoming prime minister, Mussolini demanded and obtained dictatorial powers from the parliament. He concentrated all the power in his hands, he made himself absolute ruler with the final say over all governmental affairs.​

THE MAIN FEATURES OF FASCISM UNDER MUSSOLIN.
1. Firstly, he took control of education. He controlled all educational institutions by appointing fascist teachers in schools, colleges and universities. University professors for example, were forced to take

 

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an obedient oath and teach in accordance with the fascist policies. Kids on the other side were taught to sing songs of praising fascist government, so that grown with the fascist mentality, thus wouldn't have the will to rebel against the government.

All opposition parties were banned. In his speeches he often said 'I and I alone assume the political, moral and historical responsibility for all that has happened'. Thus, soon in November 1926, all rival political parties were banned in Italy, making Italy a single-party state. The leaders of the opponent parties were forced out of politics or into exile. This was to make his government comfortably exercise its duties, without any inconveniences from the opponents.

State control of economy. As he rose into power when Italy was in economic distress, unemployment and severe poverty, economic life of the country was closely organized by the state. Key industries and financial sectors were placed under government control, and government even ordered what to produce and arranged the prices for the products

Strict censorship and control of all mass media. The Fascists also gained control of the press by persuading newspaper owners to sack anti-Fascist editors and replace them with friendly ones. Opposition newspapers were banned in Italy.

He ordered the arrest of all anti-fascists. All the people who opposed the fascist policies were killed, tortured or sent to exile or to small villages in Italy where they didn't have any possibility to speak up against him. It is true to say that Mussolini’s rule was nowhere near as cruel and brutal as Hitler’s Germany.

Foreign invasions. Like Hitler, Mussolini also wanted to rebuild a new empire by taking over other lands. In 1935, Mussolini invaded Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) a poor country in Africa. Abyssinia appealed to the League of Nations for help. The League placed economic sanctions on Italy but these were ineffective and failed to stop Italy.

He limited the people’s freedom. He viewed that this would open the new room for people’s criticism over his government, thus during his reign people in Italy had no right of press, speech, and assembly. Individuals lost the right to privacy, which meant that officials could read people's mail, listen in on telephone conversations, and search private homes without a warrant.

Anti-communism. Mussolini rose into power during the fear of communist takeover. Thus fascists very quickly began a campaign of violence and terror against Communists and other opponents. Their campaign also involved banning opposition newspapers and meetings.



WHAT FACTORS LED TO THE RISE OF FASCISM IN ITALY

The effect of the First World War. The modern historians do agree that the problems Italy faced after world war one was the cause of the rise of Fascism. Although Italy’s involvement in the war was less far-reaching in comparison with that of Britain and France it did have devastating effects on the lives of many Italians. The post-war Italy was dominated by the economic collapse. The problem of unemployment increased, as aggravated by the return of millions of ex-soldiers to Italy. Moreover, inflation added to the sufferings of the Italians. This resulted to political instabilities in the country, since hungry mobs organized a number of uprisings and there were frequent riots. Even the middle classes who were greatly impoverished by the war, lost confidence to their existing democratic government, that was considered to be too feeble to tackle the numerous problems confronting the country. Under this situation, people thought that only a strong and powerful government could take the country forward. This provided the room for the success of Benito who came up with strategies to overcome the situation.

Weakness of existing government. During the post war Italy was ruled by weak monarchy government under King Victor Emmanuel. The existing government proved failure in different areas. For instance, it failed to solve problems caused by the First World War like mass unemployment, inflation and social unrests. The situation that resulted to political instabilities. The sufferings of people in post-war period, made many people to lose hope in their government, supporting Benito with his Fascist Party, who seemed more competent in comparison.

Disappointment by the Versailles Peace Treaty. As discussed above, Italy fought on the side of the victorious Allies in the First World War (triple entente), following the 1915 London Agreement in which she was promised several territories upon the end of the war, but the promise was overturned. She was not happy with the terms of peace settlement because she was not given what had been promised to her. This proved that the existing democratic government was weak as failed to defend the interests of Italy against other nations, especially those betrayed it at Paris. Benito convinced people that strong government was needed to fight for these Italy’s benefits, thus used this to make himself with his party popular.

Threat of communism. The end of the world war one on the other hand, raised majority’s faith over socialism. The successful Bolshevik Revolution was spreading socialism worldwide, thus the socialist party became very popular after the war, due to its advice to advisable Italian government of not joining the war. Honestly, Italians were not economically and militarily prepared for a world war and they therefore suffered harder in comparison to other victorious countries. There was the fear that socialist revolution would at any point occur in Italy. One of the ultimate agendas, and successes, of the fascists was to suppress communist movements and create a strong and stable middle class. Benito claimed his Fascist Party to be the only political group who would ward off a socialist revolution. This made them supported especially by the middle class who feared communism

The role of Benito Mussolini. In discussing factors gave to the rise of fascist party, Mussolini’s own role was also important. The pragmatic character of Benito Mussolini, an Italian fanatic fighter, who was born in 1883, played a significant role in forming and organizing the national fascist party, and finally accession to government. The success of fascist party resulted from his ambitious nature and political ability, plus good slogans he made, which convinced majority’s support.



NAZISM IN GERMANY.

Nazism refers to the totalitarian ideology and policies espoused and practiced in Germany under Adolf Hitler between 1933-1945.



The period following the world war one was the period of confusion in Germany. Being defeated by the allied powers, Germany was in a severe economic situation, with higher levels of unemployment and hyperinflation. People will always vote for or join a political party that they believe will increase their wealth, power, and prestige. The Nazis realized that if they were to gain and keep mass support from the German people, they would have to tackle these serious issues. Thus the Nazi Party had taken advantage of the economic and political unrest in Germany to gain majority approval. These conditions provided the chance for the rise of a new leader, Adolf Hitler, and his National Socialist German Workers' Party, or NAZI Party.

WHO WAS ADOLF HITLER?

Adolf Hitler was a German dictator born on 20 April 1889 in the small Austrian town of Braunau. He was the fourth of six children born to Alois Hitler and Klara Polzl. His father, Alois, was a customs official while his mother, Klara, came from a poor peasant family. When Hitler was 3 years old, his family moved from Austria to Germany. After the death of his father in 1903, Hitler dropped out of school and moved to Vienna where he worked as a casual laborer, shoemaker and a painter.

During the world war one, the big powers of Europe were fighting against Germany. Hitler applied to serve in the German army during the war. Perhaps here is when his political story started. He joined the army, and he was decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross First Class and the Black Wound Badge when the war ended.

Adolf was frustrated by Germany’s defeat in World War, which had left the nation economically depressed and politically unstable. Disapproving the existing government, he joined a fledgling political organization called the German Workers’ Party in 1919, and in 1921 became a leader. He then started his movements to popularize the Party, condemning the existing weak government of Weimar Republic. Through the 1920s, Hitler gave speech after speech in which he stated that

 

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unemployment, rampant inflation, hunger and economic stagnation in postwar Germany would continue until there was a total revolution in German life, and that was by voting out the existing weak government in favour of NAZI.
His movements led him arrested within few days and tried for high treason, in which in 1923, Hitler sentenced to imprisonment. His struggles never ended, while in the prison released the book “Mein Kampf” (My Struggle) in which he laid out his plans for restoring Germany’s reputation and transforming German society into one based on race. The NAZI Party grew into a mass movement, more popularity and eventually in 1933 Hitler was appointed the chancellor of Germany by President Paul Von Hindenburg. Here is when the so called NAZI REGIME officially started in Germany.
Note: Hitler came to power legally; he did not overthrow an existing government or seize power through the military. Hitler was approved by the German people, and appointed by president Hindenburg hoping he would solve problems faced postwar Germany, and restore Germany to the position it had before war. And when rose into power, he enforced policies which made NAZI-regime be termed as Dictatorial regime.​

THE MAIN FEATURES OF NAZI TOTALITARIAN STATE
Once Hitler gained control of the government, he started his struggles of restoring Germany’s standing in the world. He began implementing several policies which put it clear that his government was dictatorial. These were;
1. One party state. After Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany 1933, he moved quickly to turn Germany into a one-party dictatorship so as to put conducive environments to enforce Nazi policies. He slowly started replacing elected officials in state governments with Nazi appointees. In July 1933 all political parties, like Communist Party, and Catholic Central Party, except the Nazi party were dissolved. The Nazi party is the only political party permitted in Germany.
2. Foreign invasion. Germany had lost land to Poland under the Treaty of Versailles. Many German- speaking people lived in areas that were now part of Poland. Again Germany lost Alsace and Lorraine to France. On 1 September 1939 Hitler ordered the German army to invaded Poland. Many other areas were invaded. This was to expand their nation. Citizens of occupied countries to the east of Germany, particularly Poles and Russians, were persecuted and sometimes killed because their countries were to be absorbed into the new German empire.
3. Anti-Semitism. Anti-Semitism was at the core of Nazi ideology. In all times the aim of the Nazi Party was the gradual social, legal and physical exclusion of the Jews from German society. It wanted to make life so difficult for the Jews that they would leave Germany. Part of Hitler’s plan for Germany was to make the country racially pure. In 1933, he ordered all non-Aryans out of government jobs. In 1935, new laws hurt the people who were Hitler’s main target: the Jews. They lost their civil rights and property. In 1938, the Nazis terrorized Jews in a night of attacks.
4. Strict Censorship of Medias. In NAZI Germany all medias, being radios, televisions, newspapers, and public events were strictly censored. Attempts were also made to censor private communications, such as mail and even private conversation. The Nazis controlled all media outlets and carried on a continual propaganda campaign to maintain support for their programs and for their ideology. The aim of censorship under the Nazi regime was simple: to reinforce Nazi power and to suppress opposing viewpoints and information.
5. He limited the people’s freedom. He persuaded his Cabinet to declare a state of emergency and end individual freedoms, including freedom of press, speech, and assembly. Individuals lost the right to privacy, which meant that officials could read people's mail, listen in on telephone conversations, and search private homes without a warrant.
6. Anti-communism. The Nazis very quickly began a campaign of violence and terror against Communists and other opponents. Their campaign also involved banning opposition newspapers, leaflets and meetings. Most problems could be solved, he explained, if communists and Jews were driven from the nation.​

7. Rearmament. Hitler’s aims could not be obtained without armed forces so he worked to make them suitable for war. Hitler had to rearm to be able to succeed. The Treaty of Versailles reduced army to 100,000 men few warships. No submarines or air force. In March 1935, Adolf Hitler announced that he would rearm Germany in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler’s desire was always to turn Germany into a world power through the development of its military. As soon as when he got into power, Germany withdrew from the world disarmament conference, and started rearing Germany.
8. Racism. For years before Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany, he was obsessed with ideas about race. In his speeches and writings, Hitler spread his beliefs in the superiority of the "Germanic race" what he called an Aryan "master race." He pronounced that his race must remain pure in order to one day take over the world. When Hitler and the Nazis came to power, these beliefs became the government ideology and were spread in publicly displayed posters, on the radio, in classrooms, and in newspapers. He did everything to make Aryans superior over other races in Germany.
9. Strict control of education. The education system was closely so that children could be indoctrinated with Nazi opinions. The curriculum was changed and school books were written to inculcate Nazi ideology. Teachers and professors were closely watched to make sure they did not express opinions which strayed from the party line​

Adolf Hitler’s socio-political structure in Nazi Germany (1933–1945) was a highly centralized, authoritarian system built around the ideology of National Socialism (Nazism). It combined extreme nationalism, racial hierarchy, militarism, and the totalitarian control of society. Here’s a detailed breakdown:​

1. Political Structure​

· One-Party Dictatorship: The Nazi Party (NSDAP) was the only legal political party. All opposition parties were banned.
· Fuhrerprinzip (Leader Principle): Hitler held absolute authority as the Führer. All political, military, and social institutions were subordinated to him.
· Centralized Control: State institutions were coordinated under Nazi Party structures, with parallel organizations ensuring loyalty to Hitler rather than traditional government hierarchies.
· Gestapo and SS: Secret police (Gestapo) and the paramilitary SS enforced Nazi policies, eliminated opposition, and controlled public life through terror.

2. Socio-Cultural Structure​

· Racial Hierarchy: Society was structured according to the Nazi racial ideology:
o “Aryans” at the top (pure Germans)
o Jews, Romani people, Slavs, and others considered inferior or enemies of the state.
· Propaganda and Control: The Ministry of Propaganda (headed by Joseph Goebbels) controlled media, arts, education, and public messaging to enforce Nazi ideology.
· Youth Indoctrination: Organizations like the Hitler Youth and League of German Girls

indoctrinated children with Nazi values and prepared them for roles in the state and military.

 

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1. Economic and Social Organization​

· State-directed Economy: While private property existed, the state controlled key industries to prepare for war and implement social policies.
· Volksgemeinschaft (People’s Community): The idea of a unified, racially “pure” society, where individuals were subordinated to the interests of the nation.
· Suppression of Trade Unions: Independent unions were abolished and replaced by the German Labor Front, controlling labor under Nazi ideology.

2. Military and Paramilitary Structure​

· Rearmament and Militarization: The Wehrmacht (army) and paramilitary units like the SA and
SS were central to enforcing policies and preparing for conquest.
· Integration of Party and State: Many military and administrative positions were filled with loyal Nazi Party members to ensure ideological conformity.

3. Legal and Administrative System​

· Law Subordinated to Ideology: Courts and laws served the state and Nazi goals rather than justice. Political opponents could be executed or sent to concentration camps without trial.
· Centralized Administration: Germany’s federal states lost autonomy; regional leaders (Gauleiters) implemented policies directly under the Nazi Party.

METHODS EMPLOYED BY ADOLPH HITLER TO PROMOTE HIS RULLING SYSTEM IN GERMANY

1. Propaganda​

· Joseph Goebbels, Minister of Propaganda, controlled newspapers, radio, films, literature, and arts to spread Nazi ideology.
· Mass rallies and symbols (swastika, uniforms, parades) created a sense of unity and loyalty.
· Youth indoctrination through the Hitler Youth and League of German Girls, teaching obedience, militarism, and racial ideology.
· Anti-Semitic campaigns dehumanized Jews and other minorities, justifying exclusion and violence.

2. Terror and Repression​

· Gestapo (Secret Police) monitored citizens, arrested opponents, and eliminated dissent.
· SS (Schutzstaffel) and SA (Stormtroopers) intimidated, arrested, and sometimes murdered political enemies.

· Concentration camps imprisoned political prisoners, minorities, and other “undesirables” as a tool of fear.

3. Legal and Political Measures​

· Enabling Act (1933): Allowed Hitler to make laws without parliamentary approval, giving him dictatorial powers.
· Banning opposition parties: Only the Nazi Party was allowed, creating a one-party state.
· Control of judiciary: Courts and laws were subordinated to Nazi ideology.

4. Education and Youth Control​

· Curriculum in schools was restructured to teach Nazi ideals, militarism, and racial purity.
· Youth organizations prepared children for roles in the military and Nazi society.

5. Economic and Social Programs​

· Public works programs (like the Autobahn) reduced unemployment and increased loyalty.
· Volksgemeinschaft (“People’s Community”): Promoted the idea of a racially unified, loyal society.
· Labor control: Independent unions were abolished, replaced by the German Labor Front, aligning workers’ interests with the state.

6. Control of Media and Culture​

· Censorship of books, newspapers, music, and art that opposed Nazi ideology.
· Promotion of Nazi-approved culture to glorify the state and Hitler’s leadership.

7. Military and Paramilitary Influence​

· Reintroduction of conscription and building up the Wehrmacht (army) strengthened national pride and obedience.
· Paramilitary groups like the SS and SA enforced loyalty and intimidated resistance.

Summary:

Hitler promoted his ruling system through a mix of propaganda, terror, legal measures, control of education and youth, economic incentives, censorship, and militarization. These methods ensured that loyalty to Hitler and the Nazi Party became central to every aspect of German society

 

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WHAT FACTORS HELPED THE RISE OF NAZISM IN GERMANY?

1. Effects of the First World War. As World War One ended with Germany defeated it left the German people feeling very unhappy. Germany faced a difficult moment for some years in 1920’s, even before the great economic depression. Problems such as weak industry, mass unemployment, hyperinflation and the loss of their coal and iron industry were very common. Shortly, the First World War was a calamity for Germany and Europe. All of these were consequences of the war. Hitler became the new hope of germans as he promissed economic glorification of the country.
2. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Added to the problems caused by the first world war, was the unfair Versailles Paece Treaty. The Germans were made unhappy with the whole process of Verssailes Peace Treaty. Firstly, the representatives of Germany and the other defeated Central Powers were not allowed to sit at the conference table until the terms of the Treaty had been agreed upon. Secondly, Germans were frustrated by the "War Guilt Clause," which forced the German nation to accept complete responsibility for initiating World War I. They all (participating powers) agreed on one point, that Germany was the causative of the first world war, thus was to accept punitive meassures. Among others were to lose her African colonies, disarm, and pay for the war reparation.​

3.The Great Depression. Though the depression started in the United States of America, it had profound effects also on Europe. The world war had already created an unstable economy that was overly dependent on financial support from the United States. The Great Depression affected all capitalist economies in the world. American banks immediately withdrew the loans they had made to Germany. Businesses closed, unemployment rose and inflation was rampant. For example by 1932, millions of Germans were unemployed, which played right into Hitler's hands. With good policies, Hitler promissed, once in the power, to restore the ruined economy of germany, something which made him gain support from the majority, and hence the rise of NAZISM.
4. The threat of communism taking over the German government. The period after the First World War witnessed the strong communists movements in Europe. Perhaps because of the effects of the war that had worsened the lives of the people. Communist agitators were very active. They were determined to create a communist state in German. Many of Hitler's speeches decried the threat of communism. In order to defend their properties, many capitalists decided to ally with Hitler hence he came into power.
5. Personality of Adolf Hitler. Hitler himself had an extraordinary political ability. Had it not been the good slogans, to convince the majority disappointed Germans, hitler would have not succeded to come into power. One of Hitler’s greatest strengths was his speech making. Although he was largely uneducated, Hitler was a charismatic speaker who captivated audiences with his eloquence, able to incite entire crowds and the masses and force his views on them. He was charismatic, loud, and impassioned. Hitler was so hot with the success of his country, and thus formulated good policies which raised people’s confidence.​

For unemployed people, Hitler promised them job
For common people, Hitler promised them bread (food)
For businessman and industrialist, Hitler promised them the elimination of the communist movements. As a result people turned their support to Hitler and the Nazi Party.

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6. Weaknesses of Weimar republic. After World War I, the German ruler, Kaiser William I, abdicated and fled to Holland. The republican democratic governmemnt then was set up in Germany. The democracy that governed Germany met at the town of Weimar. It is because of this that it became known as the Weimar Republic. Perhaps because it was born in a time of serious economic and political instability, the Republic was seen weak from the beginning. The inflation rate rose so dramatically that the German currency lost virtually all value, and it caused many people, especially​

in the middle classes to fall into poverty. Many never trusted the Republic again. Thus, the weaknesses in the Weimar system of government were one of the causes of Hitler’s access​

WHAT WERE THE IMPACTS OF DICTATORSHIP IN EUROPE AND THE WORLD AT LARGE ?
It cannot be doubted that Hitler and Mussolini formulated the most destructive political regime of the 20th century, not only because it unleashed World War II or instigated the holocaust but because of its impact on German society and Europe at large.
1. Assassination of many people. Many people lost their lives during both Mussolini’s and Hitler’s reigns, especially those who opposed their policies. It is impossible to know exactly how many people died as the deaths were comprised of thousands of different events over a period of more than ten years. It for example argued that, 9 millions Jews living in Europe, 6 millions were killed in concentration camps as Hitler ordered. All of those who were opponent to him were to leave the country, and find somewhere to live, otherwise were subject to death.
2. Forced migration. There were many people fleeing the Nazis in the 1930s, to escape persecution or discrimination, a lot of them Jewish. From Germany and Italy, mostly these people were welcomed by Britain and America. And German citizens fled Germany in the 1930s Some among them got jobs in the industry, or other potentially sensitive positions. For example, With Hitler on the rise, writers like Thomas Mann, and the brilliant scientist Albert Instein and his family fled their native Germany and emigrated to America.
3. Prosperity of economy. Hitler notably revived the German economy by launching a number of policies which restored several economic sectors, and caused the unemployment figures to drop. Hitler was not merely a politician, once got into power took different measures to rebuild the economy of his country. For example, unemployment dropped from six million in 1933 to only three hundred thousands by 1939. Likewise, Italy’s economy rose during the reign of Benito Mussolini.
4. Fascism buried communism in both Italy and Germany. Fascism was completely against communism. The governments arrested and silenced any citizens who disagreed with their policies, and the communists were the special target. As one of the strongest political parties in Germany before 1934, communists were the major opponents of the Nazis. Large number of communist were arrested and sentenced to prison. It is estimated that 340,000 communists were imprisoned within short time of the Nazi regime. Thus communist totally disappeared in Germany with the rise of Adolf.
5. Loss of democracy. When these men rose into power, both Italy and Germany were democratic. Nazi Germanyunder the leadership of Hitler soon became a dictatorship. Hitler banned all opposition parties, abolished election, restricted the freedom of expression, and many other elements of democracy. The same policies were adopted by Benito in Italy.​

6. Outbreak of the second world war. World War Two began in September 1939 when Britain and France declared war on Germany following Germany's invasion of Poland. Hitler was undauntedly once again responsible for instigating the second world war. Obviously the second world war was the battle between Democrats (Britain, France and USA) against Dictatorial powers (Germany, Italy, Japan).

Germany, the powerful empire in the early 20th century effectively participated in the First World War (1914-1918) alongside the Austrian-Hungary against the Allies (England, France, Russia and the United States). The war had to them some imperialist motives. They all joined the war with the hope to strengthen their colonial empires and economic gains. Surprisingly the war drained the big nations of Europe of all their resources. Much more affected, was the defeated Germany.​

 

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Firstly, the war left Germany economically depressed. Germany more than any other country in Europe fell on hard times. It is basically clear that during fighting many nations stop production and concentrate on fighting. Furthermore, high percentages of the national resources are directed on financing war requirements. Poor financial management in post war Germany caused hyperinflation.

Secondly, the war caused social miseries like poverty and unemployment. The First World War was a calamity for Germany and Europe. Problems such as poverty, mass unemployment, famine and hunger were very common in post war Germany. Hitler became the new hope of Germans as he promised economic glorification of the country.

Thirdly, the war increased communist threats. Bad economic situation in post war Europe, and the success of communism in Russia, caused the increase of communist attempts to seize power in Germany. Socialism was threatening European societies, as people now saw it as the solution to their social and economic unrest. This directly threatened the rich and business, something which made them support anti-communist leaders

Fourthly, the war left Germany in politically unstable. Economic problems contributed to instability, which in turn helped fascist rulers gain power. The start of the Weimar Republic was marked by political unrest all over Germany. Germany was by the time split in a dozen of political parties, each with its own policies. People were bitter and angry about Versailles, unemployment and inflation. Protests took the form of strikes, demonstrations, political assassinations and even attempts to overthrow the government. The biggest uprising took place in the capital, Berlin

Again, big powers were disappointed with the Versailles terms. On one side, Germany was unfairly punished by the terms of the treaty on ground that she was the causative of the war. She had for example, to pay for the war reparation, disarm, dispossess her African colonies and surrender Alsace and Lorraine to France. This had great impact to the German political atmosphere, and thus led to the rise of dictatorship
The war had ruined the economies of Europe, leaving countries which had previously succeeded in economy, with mass unemployment, inflation and many other economic problems.​

 

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THE GREAT DEPRESSION AND THE RISE OF FASCIST GOVERNMENTS​

In 1919 at the close of the War, the great world powers convened in France to discuss the future of
post-war Europe. The product of their meeting was the Treaty of Versailles that was signed on 28 June 1919, between Germany and the victors. In the Treaty of Versailles, the victorious powers (the United States, Great Britain, France, and other allied states) imposed harsh punitive territorial, military, and economic provisions on defeated Germany. The unfair Versailles Peace Treaty is and will always be blamed for fostering the subsequent emergence of totalitarian regimes in Germany and Europe.​

Firstly, Germany was not consulted. The representatives of Germany and the other defeated Central Powers were not allowed to sit at the conference table until the terms of the Treaty had been agreed upon. This lack of consultation angered Germans, but had no choice, as the Allies declared that war would resume if the German government did not sign the treaty they had agreed to among themselves.

Secondly, the treaty caused economic problems to Germany. Germany’s economy in the 1920’s suffered greatly partly because of the Treaty of Versailles. Germany owed an abundant amount of money to the Allies. She had to pay an amount of 6,500,000,000 pounds for the damage which she had caused in the war as a reparation. This caused caused a state of hyperinflation and economic distress within Germany. The failing economy created a crutch for the rising Nazi Party.

Thirdly, the treaty ended with German territorial loss. In the treaty, Germany lost about 10 percent of her land. The industrial Saar region was placed under the administration of the League of​

Nations for 15 years, Alsace-Lorraine was given back to France while Denmark received Northern Schleswig. All of territories which were for long Germanised, were now given back. Furthermore, in 1923, France occupied the Ruhr Valley, the heartland of German industry, because Germany was unable to pay war reparations demanded by the Treaty of Versailles.This had seriously weakened Germany

Fourthly, Germany was dispossessed all her African colonies. Germany lost all her colonies in Africa, which were transferred to the League of Nations which allowed the victorious powers such as Britain, France, Belgium, and South Africa, to rule over them as Mandates. Here, Tanganyika became under British, Rwanda and Burundi under Belgium, and Namibia under South Africa

Fifthly, Germany was militarily weakened. Germany was not allowed to have submarines or an air force. Its army was to be limited to 100,000 soldiers, and a navy of only 6 ships. The Germany was not allowed to have submarines or an air force. She was prohibited from bulding war tanks, warships and other destructive weapons.
Thus, the treaty injured Germany territoriality, militarily, economically, and politically. German people were very angry about the Treaty of Versailles and supported Hitler because he promised to overturn it​

The Great Depression was a serious economic slump that began in the united states and hit the global economy. Although Germany was economically devastated after a draining defeat in World War I, a slight economic recovery took place in Germany 1923-1919 during the reign of Gustavo Stresseman, especially as a result of American loans. However, things changed in 1930s after the Great Depression. The Americans not only stopped their assistance to Germans, but also insisted on calling back the American loans from Europe. Germany was once again in serious financial crisis. The great depression had caused many problems to Germans ;

Firstly, German business collapses. As USA withdrew and called back her loans, German businesses were forced to close. Perhaps the crippled economy of Germany could not sustain without American money

Secondly, the rising number of unemployment. In Germany, unemployment rose sharply beginning in late 1929, and by early 1932 it had reached 6 million workers

Thirdly, the depression brought about hardship and sufferings. The majority Germans were in a severe bad economic situation. Increase of unemployment, failure of business and hyperinflation intensified the hardship of the lives of majority

Fourthly, the depression intensified communists threats. Many workers and common people whose lives became desperate, turned to communism. This frightened wealthy businessmen, so they financed Hitler's campaigns

Also, the depression exposed the weaknesses of Weimar government. During the whole period of depression, the government was in chaos. President Hindenburg dismissed Chancellor Heinrich Bruning in 1932. His replacement, Franz von Papen lasted six months, and the next chancellor - Kurt von Schleicher only lasted two months. People had lost confidence on government, while NAZI was becoming overwhelming. Thus the only alternative for President Paul Hindenburg was to collaborate with NAZI, thus appointed Hitler.​

The Great Depression of 1929 struck America hard but Germany much harder. The Weimar government failed to muster an effective response to the Depression. This forced the Germans who were in seek for a fast and accurate solution to join Hitler, who promised, once in the power, to restore the ruined economy of Germany.​

 

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FEATURES OF JAPANESE DICTATORSHIP​

Militarism. A dictatorial nation is always a violence and aggressive state. Its objects cannot be obtained without armed forces. Dictators’ desire was always to turn their countries into a world giant power through the development of its military.

Anti-communism. The military government in japan very quickly began a campaign of violence and terror against Communists and other opponents. Internally the communists were suppressed, and internationally Japan signed Anti-comintern Pact with Germany and Italy, to react against the communist policy known as Comintern Policy.

Foreign invasion. One feature of navy dictatorship nation, is invasion. It tends to expand beyond its boarder by annexing other weaker states. While Germany invaded Poland, Italy invaded Ethiopia, Japan invaded in several times invaded China. In 1931 and 1936 for example Japan invaded Manchuria, a province of China. When the League of Nations said that Japan was wrong, Japan simply left the league.

Anti-democracy. All democratic elements disappeared in japan during Japanese militarism. No freedom of speech, Strict Censorship of Medias, and many other actions which showed that Japan was no longer a democratic nation.

WHAT BROUGHT MILITARY DICTATORSHIP IN JAPAN?​

Great Economic Depression.The great depression affected Japan greatly, and led to a rise in militarism. Japan was a good exporter of luxury industrial goods to other countries such as America and many others which because they were now affected by the depression, they could not afford them anymore. For example, the raw silk as well as rice. This proved the failure of the existing government. The army officers were attracted by fascism and decided to seize power and introduce a strong national government.

The issue of Manchuria. As it was the Chinese province, Chinese were trying to squeeze out Japanese trade and investments from Manchuria. It was also believed in Japan that Manchuria was rich in minerals, forestry and rich agricultural land. With the problems that Japan was experiencing at home, Manchuria seemed an obvious solution to these problems. To preserve their interest, the Japanese army in 1931 launched an attack on Manchuria without even permission from the government. Within a few days Japanese armed forces had occupied several strategic points in South Manchuria. Thus militarism was seen necessary to continue defending the interests of Japan.

Weakness of the civilian government. After the First World War in 1918, there was a rise of Party government in Japan. To a certain, the weakness of the party government did contribute to the coming of militarists in 1930s. While the majority were starving, the government officials were corrupt, extravagantly spending government resources. Series of political scandals undermined confidence in the government and thus allowed the military to take power.

Rampant corruption. While the majority were starving, political corruption in Japan was rampant. Corruption was daily scandal of the country's most powerful political elites. This was undoubtedly among the factors for the rise of militarism

The role of military. It is military in japan that which took over the government from the weak civilian government, by assassinating Prime minister Inukai in 1932. The role of army and navy was therefore crucial in establishing fascist system in Japan.

IMPACTS OF JAPANESE MILITARISM​

Many people lost their lives. Dictatorial government is always a violent state, and always acts violently to those opposing it. Many people lost their lives between 1932-1945. It is impossible to know exactly how many people died as the deaths were comprised of thousands of different events over a period of more than ten years. The notable example of people assassinated was Prime Minister Inukai in may 1932, the event which marked the beginning of militarism. Many other people were killed

Total suppression of communism in Japan. Like Italy and Germany, Japanese military government was also not interested with communism. Japan allied with Italy and Germany to form Anti- comintern Pact to combat the spread of communism within and outside their countries. Large number of communists were arrested and sentenced to prison. Thus communism totally disappeared in Japan with the rise of militarism.

Loss of democracy. Before military took power in japan, japan was a democratic. As the army seized power, japan became a police state. All democratic elements disappeared with the rise of militarism.



Outbreak of the second world war. Undoubtedly the second global conflict resulted from the rise of totalitarian, militaristic regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan. The allied democratic powers (Britain, France, and USA) claimed that they were struggling to combat dictatorship in world. Obviously the second world war was the battle between Democrats (Britain, France and USA) against Dictatorial powers (Germany, Italy, Japan).

 

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COMPARISONS BETWEEN NAZISM AND ITALIAN FASCISM.​

Hitler’s Nazi state shared many things in common with Mussolini’s fascist system.

Both:



Fascism and Nazism attempted to organize a totalitarian state. Both in their respective states exercised outright dictatorship, by suppressing opposition through banning of opposition parties and controlling all aspects of people’ lives like education and Religion, limiting personal freedom and controlling countries’ economies like industry and agriculture.

Were intensely nationalistic. Both Fascism and Nazism emphasized the supremacy of the state at the expense of the people. To both the state was more important than individuals and to that sense, the state’s interests were more important than those of its people. Therefore it was important to promote the greatness of the state than anything else.

Were extremely anti-communism. Both Fascism and Nazism were against communism because they were against war and accused capitalism of being responsible for the outbreak of the World War I yet both glorified war as means through which a nation would pursue its aims and win glory. Their position against communism won them strong support from all anti-communist classes especially the capitalists.

Struggled to make their countries self-sufficient: Self-sufficient was important in raising their states to greatness and for the rebirth of their nations from economic troubles which they had suffered due to the Word War I and Great Economic Depression. To attain that they developed, industry, agriculture and infrastructure also largely arrested unemployment.

Glorified war and the cult of the leader for heroism. In both, leaders took tittles for praise the “II duce” for Mussolini and further for Hitler. To them the leader would guide the revival of the nation from its troubles for example Germany from the depression, the harsh terms of the Versailles treaty and Italy from economic backwardness. War was glorified as a test for their country’s greatness, for revenge against enemies and expansionism.

Practiced Racism. Both exercised anti- Semitic (anti - Jewish) policy and general persecution of minorities. The policy was began by Hitler but later adopted by Mussolini in 1938. Though Jews were discriminated for hundreds of years throughout Europe, by the Nazis and Fascist it was worse. Hitler hated Jews intensely and used them as scapegoats for every Germany problems and discontentment like the defeat in the World War I, Versailles treaty, and the depression. The Jews were harassed in every possible way, for example, their properties like synagogues and houses were attacked and burnt, shops looted, and were herded into concentration camps where many were tortured to death.

Were expansionists. Both Fascism and Nazism carried out aggressive foreign expansionist policies mainly to earned popularity and glory for their nations. Mussolini for example invaded Greece (Cofu) in 1923, Ethiopia in 1935 and Albania in 1939. the aim was to create large empires as wider living rooms for their populations and exploitation.

Emphasized the close unity of all classes working together to achieve their ends. They operated under a single party system and all political parties were banned. They based on the ideology that what was important for the state was important to all its individuals so all individuals were to respect the ideology of the ruling party. Industrial owners, workers, professionals, and soldiers worked together for the benefit of the state.







Differences;

Difference in constitutional positions. The monarchy still remained in Italy, with Mussolini serving as a prime minister and though he normally ignored Victor Emmanuel, the King played a vital role in the state management. In 1943, for example the King was able to announce Mussolini’s dismissal and order his arrest, Nobody in Germany could dimiss Hitler, he was the top most leader and no one was allowed or could be tolerated to criticize him

Italian fascism was not much ant-Jewish like the Nazi Germany. Mussolini adopted anti - Jewish in 1938 simply to emulate Hitler after signing the Rome - Berlin axis. For Hitler however, hated Jews from his childhood of poverty in Vienna and accused them of all Germany problems like in the defeat in the World War I, and the economic depression.

Mussolini practiced some little religious tolerance. Mussolini was somehow compromising to the Roman Catholic Church and in 1929 signed a treaty with the pope - the Lateran Pact not to interfere with the church. Hitler was a totally against religion and the church was later brought under state control. The Nazis took restrictive measures against the church; church schools were closed down and their youth Leagues dissolved, many church leaders and followers were sent to concentration camps and Hitler even encouraged an alternative religion - the pagan “German faith movement” based on worship of the Sun in the attempt to Nazify religion. Hitler also abrogated the concord, an agreement signed with the Pope in 1933.

Timing. Fascism in Italy came to power earlier since 1922 and before the Great Economic Depression (1929 - 1933) hence depression was not a cause. Nazism came to power later in 1933 with the depression helping it to win mass support as they promised better changes to drive the Germany economy to greatness and end suffering caused by the depression. Additionally, Hitler borrowed from Mussolini’s policies though he later surpassed him and instead Mussolini started copying from him like the strong anti- Semitic policies against the Jews which Mussolini officially introduced in 1938.

Italian system was not as efficient as that in Germany. Italians failed to achieve self- sufficiency. Italy had poor industry, and agriculture, lacked essential raw materials and resources like iron and coal. It also failed to eliminate unemployment. For Germany however, industry and agriculture flourished and unemployment totally eliminated. Indeed the Nazi Germany made tremendous economic progress for Germany.

The Italian system was not as ruthless and brutal as that of Germany and there were no mass atrocities like Nazis concentration camps where mass tortures and murders were conducted against ‘state enemies’ like Jews. In Italy murder was mainly done on political opponents like socialist Matteoti and Amendola who criticized the Fascist government, there was no serious mass murder of minorities like it was for Jews in Germany.



TO SUM UP,

The fascist ideology arose out of the trauma of WWI. These men rose to power essentially because their countries had in some way been made unhappy by the outcome of that war. After World War I, defeated Germany, disappointed Italy, and ambitious Japan were anxious to regain or increase their power; all three eventually adopted forms of dictatorship. These three countries also set themselves up as champions against Communism, thus gaining at least partial tolerance of their early actions from the more conservative groups in the Western democracies, like Britain, USA and France which were also against communism. However dictatorship in these three states had its end. The western powers failed tolerating Hitler’s expansion and other aggressive policies, thus invaded Germany in 1939, what brought the Second World War between democrats (Britain, France, and USA) and dictators (Japan, Italy and Germany). This initiated World War II (1939-1945) can be said to have ended the era of dictatorship in these three countries. While Mussolini was captured in 1943 and executed in 1945 with his wife, Hitler committed suicide. This brought Nazi dictatorship in Germany to an end. In Japan dictatorship came to an end in 1945 and Japan was put under Douglas MacArthur, an American general.

 

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IT IS THE SECOND WORLD WAR THAT ENDED THE ERA OF FASCISM IN GERMANY, ITALY AND JAPAN

THE RISE OF SOCIALISM AND NEW GOVERNANCE SYSTEM​

What is socialism?



D. Dickinson defined Socialism: an economic organization of society in which the material means of production are owned by the whole community and operated by organs representative of and responsible to the community according to a general economic plan, all members of the community being entitled to benefit from the results of such socialized planned production on the basis of equal rights.



However, socialism is a political and economic ideology that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole. Thus the central to the meaning of socialism is common ownership.



The key to understanding socialism begins with understanding the concept of capitalism. This is because socialism arose largely in response to the economic and social consequences of the Industrial capitalism. Capitalism is a social system based upon the private ownership of the means of wealth production. The means of production, while individually owned, are socially operated by the proletarian class. This class owns nothing but its mental and physical energy, which it must sell to industrial owners for wages. Work hours are often long and wages are poor. The workers who made the majority of European population were outraged by everything the industrial revolution had brought in Europe, as they were victims of exploitation and oppression by capital-owners. The great scholars, who were sympathetic to the terrible conditions of the working class, proposed that conditions for workers could be improved only if the control of production were moved from capitalists to the workers. Hence, socialism arose largely in response to the economic and social consequences of the Industrial Revolution.







THE KEY FEATURES OF SOCIALISM

Collective ownership of resources. The means of production like lands, mines, factories, trade and the entire system of finance are collectively owned for the benefit of all and not the property of private individuals as the case in capitalism. This is undoubtedly the central feature of socialist society.

Central planning of economy. Economic planning is an essential feature of socialism. Economic decisions regarding the allocation of resources to various ends, the goods to be produced and the methods of production are taken by a central authority and not left to the individuals as in the capitalist economies.

Establishment of a classless society. Industrial capitalism divided population into two antagonistic classes; capitalists and workers. Here one class exploits the other. Socialism aims at establishing a

classless society. As all the means of production are owned by the state, the capitalist class simply does not exist.

Emphasis on equality. Socialism developed as a reaction against the injustice and miseries of industrial capitalism, as an attempt to liberate workers from capitalist exploitation. It was considered that only by introducing greater equality into economic relations that the condition of the working classes can be improved. Always socialism aims to introduce more equality into social conditions.

It focused on the growth of workers’ movements and transforming into instruments of socio

- political and economic change. The aim is to form a strong proletariat class that would be used as a weapon to overthrow capitalism.

Formation of a firm centralized government; Socialist government is usually a centralized one, whose main role is to strengthen solidarity and unity among the members of the society to achieve certain national interests, in this sense, there are limited democratic practices because of existence of the single party political structure.

Advancement of science and technology; a socialist state put much emphasis on modernizing techniques and system of production, i.e advancement in science and technology to promote socialist economic growth.



Factors for the rise of Socialism in Europe.

Development of the Industrial revolution; the growth of the industrial revolution created new classes of wage earners or industrial workers and industrialists who were antagonistic. The latter maximized their wealth by exploiting the former, through the payment of low provisions and poor social services. These unbearable industrial condition provoked the industrial workers to organize a deliberately working-class movement to overthrow industrial capitalism and establish a more justice socialist system.

Nature of classical feudal system. Development of socialist thoughts or ideologies is a result of the serfdom lifestyle that was practiced in medieval Europe, in that system, the landlords extended intensive exploitation to both peasants and tenants, who were forced to pay rents in kind, labour an in money. Such exploitation was strongly condemned and opposed by the classical thinkers of the time such as St Simon, Thomas More and Robert Owen, whose ideas of Equality, justice and Brotherhood, laid the need for socialism.

The role of classical philosophers; the classical thinkers of the time such as Thomas More (1478 - 1535), who wrote a book “Utopia”, with socialist ideas focused on building an ideal socialist society based on equality, perfect Government, self-sufficient economy and free from exploitation of man by man. His ideas gained support from the incoming philosophers like St Simon, Charles Fourier and Robert Owen, who condemned the capitalist system as a source of evils to human kind. They awakened the masses to build a socialist world, which would be free from socio -economic and political injustices.

The influence of the French Revolution 1789; the overthrow of the monarch system under King Louis XVI, went simultaneously with the declaration of social principles based on equality, fraternity, liberty and brotherhood which inspired the masses to institute socialism in Europe.

The role of Marxism; the rise of Karl Marx (1818 - 1883) and his friend Fredirick Engels (1824 - 1855) developed the principles of dialectical materialism and class struggle, which became very influential in organizing socialist revolutions. According to Karl Marx, “workers were the source of wealth, yet through capitalism, this wealth fell in hands of the few capitalists”. Fredirick Engel describes the condition of the industrial working class in Britain as a “Social Murder” because of injuries and deaths resulting from dangerous working conditions. Through their writings, they advocated for revolutions to overthrow capitalism and lay down the growth of socialism which would allow the working class too, collectively to own the means of production

Effect of the World Wars, I and II. The two Wars were imperialist in nature, as European imperialist powers fought each other for more territorial expansion to satisfy their industrial needs. The atrocious

nature of the wars brought a lot of miseries like high death toll and famine. Socialist agitators capitalized on such miseries to persuade many to believe in socialism by accusing capitalism for the problems. Moreover, the World War II enabled the USSR to extend socialist influence to a large part of Eastern Europe which she liberated from Germany armies.

 

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DEVELOPMENT AND FORMS OF SOCIALISM​

Socialism is not a new idea. However, the heyday of socialism is from eighteenth century when there emerged a number of theorists, angered by the evils of industrial revolution. In its historical development, socialism passed through two major forms;
1. Utopian Socialism
2. Scientific socialism.​

1. UTOPIAN SOCIALISM.

By definition, Utopian socialism is the earliest socialist thought which believed on the imaginary perfect society, with perfect government, perfect law, and perfect economy, where poverty would never exist and people would live happy life. The first serious attack to capitalism came from this a group of people whom are referred to as the Utopian Socialists. Almost simultaneously in France and Britain different social theorists or philosophers began to criticize capitalism, and propose on an ideal perfect community in which people would live free and happy life. The first utopian socialist was without doubt the English philosopher and author Thomas Moore, who portrayed in his 1515 publication, ‘Utopia’, the imaginary equality society​

KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF UTOPIAN SOCIALISM:​

1. Idealistic Vision of Society – Advocates a perfect, harmonious society where social inequalities are eliminated.
2. Emphasis on Cooperation – Promotes communal living, collective ownership, and cooperation over competition.
3. Reformist Approach – Focuses on peaceful, voluntary reforms rather than violent revolution.
4. Moral and Ethical Focus – Believes social change should be guided by morality, justice, and human welfare.
5. Economic Equality – Seeks to reduce poverty and wealth disparities through shared resources.
6. Experimental Communities – Often involves creating small-scale model communities as examples for society

2. SCIENTIFIC SOCIALISM

Scientific socialism is that advanced political and economic system as founded and labeled by Karl Marx and his followers Fredrick Engel and Vladimir Lenin. It is a system which does not allow exploitation of man by man and which unlike utopian socialism is established through a socialist revolution.​

Methods used by Scientific Socialism to achieve their goals.​

1. Through publications like the communist manifesto in 1848 and Das- Capital. These books guided the working class on how to build scientific socialism it acted as the bible for the followers of scientific socialism.
2. Through Formation of International movements, which included world wide socialist conferences like the first socialist international conference that was formed in 1864 in London this movement was led by Karl Marx and Fredrick Engel, the second was formed in 1893 in Switzerland and the movement was concerned by drawing up programme of action so as to put the theory of scientific socialism into practice.​

3. ​

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Through launching of socialist revolutions, the theory of scientific socialist were put into practice it begun with the shortest lived French socialist revolution of 1871 followed by the Bolshevik revolution of 1917 followed by significances of Second World War to the triumph of socialist thoughts.

The Russian Revolution was a political revolution that overthrew the monarchy of Tsar Nicholas II and made the construction of the new governmental system. The revolution took place in two phases; the February Revolution which marked the end of centuries of despotic tsarist regime and its replacement by the provisional government, and the October Revolution, in which the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power and set a communist government.​

What factors triggered Russian revolution?
A wide range of opposition groups had been campaigning for the end of Tsarist regime since at- least 1870’s.These movements became very popular during the reigning of Nicholas II. The first and foremost obvious reason for this was Tsar’s incompetence and inability to compromise. Whenever the people demanded their rights Tsar Nicholas’ first attempt was to open fire to them. Following factors are accountable for Russian revolution;
o Autocratic rule of Tsar Nicholas II. The first and obvious reason for the outbreak of the movement was autocracy, a form of government in which one person has absolute power. The tsarist government was a centralized, autocratic government. All political power was in the hands of the tsar and his closest-appointed advisers. Furthermore, the Tsarist government was ruthless, absolute and repressive. In 1905 for example, a peaceful demonstration led by Father Gapon at St. Petersburg, demanding the improvements of their lives was fired upon by the Tsarist troops. Nicholas wanted an autocratic rule in which he alone made all the laws and determined all foreign policy. His word was itself law. Although the parliament (DUMA) was established after the 1905’s revolts, it remained toothless and Nicholas remained the overall director. He several times dissolved the DUMA once it was against his willing.​

o Effects of the World War One. Russia was among the nations actively participated in the world war one. The war went badly with many Russian casualties. Russia’s participation in the war was self-contradictory both in motives and in aims. That bloody struggle was waged essentially for world domination. In this sense it was beyond Russia’s scope. However, Russian troops were not as strong as the Western European industrial nations of Germany and Austria, thus experienced defeats in the frontlines, causing the deaths of thousands of Russians. At home, citizens were becoming more and more upset and angry over the deaths of their sons and fathers. Secondly, the millions of Russian men were drafted into the Russian army from farms and factories. Thus, food and other supplies were in desperate need for the people. Citizens were tired of the war, they marched through the streets of St. Petersburg, shouting ‘End the war’ and ‘Down with the Tsar’ Soon, riots broke out and rebellion quickly spread across the country. Finally, even the soldiers refused to obey government orders to put down the revolt. The revolution therefore took place.​

o The miserable conditions faced workers and peasants. The economic and social conditions of the great majority Russians were without doubt one of the great factors provoked the revolution. The workers and peasants were victims of severe exploitations and oppressions from the class of haves. The workers for example had to endure miserable working conditions, while​

 

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receiving extremely low wages and worked for 12 to 14 hours a day. Furthermore they had to go without any medical relief in case of an accident while on duty, and it was considered a crime to form a trade unions. The government however did not attempt to improve these conditions, and whenever stroke to demand improvements, the Tsar’s government opened fire against them. All of these created revolutionary ideas.



The role of Karl Marx and Frederick Angel. Karl Marx could be considered the intellectual and philosophical leader of the Russian Revolution. Although he had died long before the revolution it was his ideas that sparked the political movements to overthrow the capitalist and autocratic regimes. His ‘Communist Manifesto’ published in 1848 was among the most influential writings in history of development of socialism. Marx emphasized that the real changes in society are determined by a class struggle between the ruling class and the working class. He further argued that the working class would eventually overthrow the ruling class and establish a society in which all property was owned by society as a whole. The Russian Revolution was built upon the ideas Marx laid out in the Marx’s books, and Lenin himself was a Marx’s follower who believed that with Marx's doctrines, he could change the Russian state.



The role of V.I. Lenin. Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov Lenin was the architect and leader of the Russian October Revolution. With very good slogans ‘Peace, Land, and Bread’ he could organize and lead the workers of the Russian Empire to make the most profound revolution in history in October 1917. He was the leader of the Russian Bolshevik Party, without which the workers would have certainly been defeated.

The failure of provisional government. The provision government of Alexander Kerensky was inexperience and faced a lot of challenges.

Russian feudal system. By 1917, it was only Russia in Europe that still held a feudal system. Land was unfairly distributed as about 80% of the Russian population were landless peasants who lived in communes under serfdom, seriously exploited and oppressed by a small section of landlords, the church, the aristocracy and the Tsar.



The aftermath of the Russian revolution on russia

Russia withdrew from the First World War. The world war was a disaster for Russia; it caused inflation, plunged the country into a food shortage, and ultimately cost the lives of big number of Russian soldiers and civilians. The new government under Lenin wanted to concentrate on domestic issues, particularly workers’ rights, and the country’s economic situation, thus could see no point in continuing on the war. Immediately after their accession to power in Russia, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, had approached the Central Powers to arrange an armistice and withdraw from a war and bring the promised peace. With some conditions, Russians agreed and on 15 December 1917, an armistice was declared between the armies of the central powers and Russia, and fighting between the two was temporarily ceased. This was followed by the formal peace negotiation in the city of Breast-Litovsk, which ended with the signing of what came to be known as Breast-Litovsk peace treaty on 3 March 1918 between the new Bolshevik government of Soviet Russia and (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Ottoman Empire), that completely ended Russia's participation in World War I.

Occurrence of civil wars. Post-revolution Russia was dominated with the civil wars between the Bolsheviks (Reds) and the anti-Bolsheviks (Whites). Although Lenin negotiated peace with Germany and ended to Russia's role in World War I, He could not, however, avoid a civil war in Russia since not all the people supported his government. This raged from 1918 until 1921. During this time, the Bolsheviks faced massive opposition from the White Armies, led by former officers of the Tsarist state, and other anti-communist groups.

Nationalization of the key economic sectors. Transfer of land and factories from the private ownership to the government ownership is always the concern of a communist government. On coming into power, Lenin with his Bolshevik government issued a series of revolutionary decrees that ratified workers’ seizures of land and industries. On June 28th, 1918, the general nationalization decree was passed that ended all forms of private capitalism. Many large factories were taken over by the state and on November 29th, 1920, any factory/industry that employed over 10 workers was nationalized. Land was given to the people to use, rather than to own. For example, it is estimated that by 1918 the government took more than 540000 acres from feudal lords, private owners and the church.

Total abolition of feudalism. Though serfdom was abolished in Russia in 1860’s, until the revolutions of 1917, the Russian Empire continued to exhibit the characteristics of a feudal society. The state was ruled by an aristocracy, and much of land was individually owned by minority. Majority were landless and obliged to till land from the landlords. This system came to an end with Russian revolution.

Birth of the U.S.S.R. In post-revolutionary Russia, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was established, as a confederation of 15 socialist republics; Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belorussia, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kirgizia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldavia, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. During the period of its existence, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was by area the world’s largest country. Until its dissolution in 1990’s, it remained the major rival of USA in the period after the Second World War.

Industrial development and the general economic growth. The post-revolution Russia was colored with economic devastations. The economy was devastated by firstly the First World War secondly the 1918-1920’s civil war which left the factories, machines and bridges destroyed. Lenin’s government came up with a number of policies to foster the economy of the country. The NEP (New Economic Policy) was introduced in 1921, in which the complete nationalization of industry was partially revoked and a system of mixed economy was introduced, which allowed private individuals to own small enterprises, while the state continued to control banks, foreign trade, and large industries. Again, the Five Years Development Plans were repeatedly introduced. The first one was introduced between 1928-1932 under Joseph Stalin, designed to advance industrialization and build the USSR into a world power. The plan pursued the policy of "collectivization" in agriculture to facilitate the process of rapid industrialization; this involved the creation of collective farms in which peasants worked cooperatively on the same land with the same equipment.

 

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GLOBAL EFFECTS OF THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION​

1. Spread of Communism Worldwide – Inspired communist parties and socialist movements across Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
2. Establishment of the Soviet Union (USSR)– The world’s first socialist state was created in 1922, becoming a superpower.
3. Withdrawal of Russia from World War I – Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) reshaped the balance of WWI.
4. Polarization of World Politics– Strengthened the divide between capitalism and communism, leading to the Cold War.
5. Inspiration for Anti-Colonial Movements – Encouraged independence struggles in Asia and Africa by promoting anti-imperialism.
6. Creation of the Comintern (1919) – Established to organize and support global communist revolutions.
7. Influence on Economic Alternatives – Introduced planned/command economies as an alternative to capitalism, influencing countries like China, Cuba, and later many African states.

8. Fear and Reaction in the West – Western powers (USA, Britain, France) feared the “red threat,” leading to policies of containment, anti-communist movements, and sometimes repression of leftist groups.

On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was formally established, with its national capital at Beijing. This was the outcome of the communists’ revolution preceded by a series of war between the communists under Mao Zedong versus ruling government under Chiang Kai-shek.
China was for long time a unified state under several imperial dynasties. The last dynasty, the Qing, was founded by the Manchus in 1644, after their conquest of China. It ruled for almost three hundred years, until it finally collapsed in 1912. Thus the historical background of Chinese revolution can be traced back in 1910’s, when the revolution had taken place, ending the autocratic monarch of the powerful and influential family, Qing dynasty. Before revolution, China was a feudal state, featured with economic exploitation and political oppression and the Chinese peasants lived like slaves, in poverty and suffering. The extreme poverty and backwardness of the peasants resulting from ruthless landlord exploitation and oppression angered people and set in motion all the grounds for the other revolution to take place. Furthermore, in the nineteenth Century, the Qing Empire faced a number of challenges to its rule, including a number of foreign incursions into Chinese territory. The failure of the Qing Dynasty to protect China from foreign aggression and to carry out extensive economic and political reforms, had convinced a large number of intellectuals and members of the upper classes that the Chinese people must get rid of the Manchus if they wanted to create a new, strong, modern China. This led to the development of the People’s Nationalist Party, led by Sun Yat- sen. Thus in October of 1911, a group of revolutionaries in southern China led a successful revolt against the Qing Dynasty, establishing in its place the Republic of China in January 1912, and ending the long ruled imperial system.
The road towards 1949 communist Revolution
Perhaps, the 1911 revolution was only the first steps in a process that would require the 1949 revolution to complete. The ideological emancipation brought by the 1911 Revolution provided the environment and conditions for various political and social theories. Seeking an alternative path for China’s political development, the Chinese turned to the writings of Karl Marx and the lessons from 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was established in Shanghai in June 1921, to challenge the existing government.
Among many other earliest members like Zhou Enlai, Zhu De and Lin Biao, Mao Zedong became the most important member of the CCP. With his communist supporters, Mao had been fighting against what he claimed was a corrupt and decadent Kuomintang (Nationalist) government under Sun Yat- Sen and then Chiang Kai-Shek. Certainly Mao became the strongest opponent of the time. Surprisingly in 1937, when the Japanese Army invaded China, in an effort to beat the Japanese, the political opponents, nationalists government and Mao Zedong with his communist armytemporarily united to fight the Japanese. After WW II ended with the defeat of Japan in 1945, a civil war continued between the Nationalists and the Communists over the right to lead China's political and economic development and to reestablish China's position in the world.
Despite massive U.S. support for the Nationalist regime, Mao’s forces were victorious in 1949 and drove the Nationalist government onto the island of Formosa (now Taiwan) and established the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949.​

 

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• 1. Foreign imperialism. China was a vast nation with abundant raw materials something which attracted frequent invasion from many bigger nations. In the course of the 19th century, foreign powers had firmly established their separate enclaves in the major coastal cities. China’s major

• 2.Peasant’s exploitation and oppression. The Chinese revolution is also known as the peasant revolution, for without the support and assistance of the peasants Mao’s communist forces would have been unable to defeat the Kuomintang armies. As already said above, China was a feudal state, featured with economic exploitation and political oppression and the Chinese peasants lived like slaves, in poverty and suffering. Recognizing this, Mao based the revolution around the peasantry. Unfair treatment of peasants was a chief cause of the revolution.
• 3. The corrupt and autocratic government of Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang government was labeled as corrupt, autocratic government with a brutal secret police. The majority peasants were infuriated by the rampant corruption of the Chiang regime. His government therefore, faced discontent among the rural poor who formed the bulwark of Mao’s forces. Socialist party proclaimed it would bring not only an end to the suffering of the people but a new democratic future based on the construction of socialism.
• 4. The role of Mao Zedong. Mao Zedong (also Mao Tse-tung) is undisputedly the preeminent figure in modern Chinese history who led the Communist revolution of 1949 ending China’s century of humiliation, oppressions and foreign imperialism. Mao began reading and follower of Marxist literatures when he was working as librarian in Beijing. In 1921, he became a founder member of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), after which he made speeches after speeches to make the party popular. Chairman Mao was the charismatic and brutal leader of Communist China, his role cannot be underestimated in history of Chinese communism.
• 5. Geographically china had been facing frequent droughts and floods. Huge parts of China have been affected by firstly floods, then some of the worst drought conditions in decades. Both of these issues can be regafrded as vital factors in the revolution as the harsh conditions created by the floods and drought caused economic hardship and therefore provoked disturbances. The majority were suffering from the shortage of food, this raised grievances against the government.
• 6. The influence of Russian Revolution of 1917.

 

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1.Industrial development in China. Industrial development led to development of industrial towns like Beijing where socialist revolutionary spirit was started by unsatisfied groups of workers due to poor pay and factory conditions.​

EFFECTS OF CHINESE REVOLUTION​

o Abolition of feudalism. The new government abolished land ownership by the feudal landlord class, and delivered the land into the hands of the peasants
o All forms of capitalism in china were swept away and new communist government was established
o The revolution made china socialist spreader and supporter in the world. She provided moral and material support to those believed in socialism
o Ended imperialism in china. Japan was a threat to china. Following the communist victory, china was totally liberated from foreign imperialism
○ Rapid industrialization.
○ Rise of single party dictatorship,

Definition​

AFRICAN SOCIALISM:

African Socialism is a political and economic ideology that emerged in Africa during the post- independence period (1950s–1970s). It sought to combine traditional African communal values with socialist principles, aiming to promote social justice, economic equality, and collective development without strictly following Western or Marxist models of socialism.​

KEY FETURES OF AFRICAN SOCIALISM​

1. Community and Collectivism
o African socialism emphasizes communal living, shared responsibility, and cooperation, inspired by traditional African societies where resources and labor were commonly shared.
2. Adaptation to African Context
o Unlike Marxist socialism, which was class-based and industrial-focused, African socialism adapted to the realities of predominantly agrarian societies and the cultural values of African communities.
3. State-led Development
o Governments often played a central role in directing economic planning and development, promoting public ownership of key sectors while allowing small-scale private initiatives.
4. Anti-colonialism and Nationalism
o It was strongly linked to liberation movements and the fight against colonial exploitation, aiming to restore dignity, sovereignty, and social cohesion.
5. Moral and Ethical Basis
o African socialism emphasized ethical leadership, moral responsibility, and social harmony, reflecting African communal traditions rather than purely economic metrics.

PROMINENT LEADERS AND EXAMPLES​

1. Julius Nyerere (Tanzania) – Ujamaa
o Advocated for Ujamaa villages and collective farming as a means of achieving self-reliance and social equality.

o Focused on education, healthcare, and rural development.
2. Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)
o Advocated socialism as part of Pan-Africanism and rapid industrialization to reduce dependency on Western powers.
3. Modibo Keita (Mali) and Sekou Touré (Guinea)
o Implemented state-controlled economies and programs emphasizing social welfare and equality

Objectives of African Socialism​

· Eradicate poverty and social inequality.
· Promote unity and collective responsibility.
· Build self-reliant economies free from neocolonial influence.
· Integrate African cultural values into modern governance and development.

Criticism and Challenge​

1. Economic Inefficiency – Many programs failed to meet production targets due to lack of capital, poor planning, or resistance to collectivization.
2. Authoritarian Tendencies – Some leaders used socialism as a political tool to consolidate power.
3. Dependence on State – Heavy state control sometimes stifled private entrepreneurship.
4. Mismatch with Reality – Traditional communal practices couldn’t always scale to national economic planning.
5. Western propagandas
6. The collapse of USSR

Legacy​

· African socialism influenced policies on education, healthcare, and rural development.
· It fostered Pan-African solidarity and the idea that African development should reflect African values, not just imported models.

· Even though many African countries later shifted to liberalized economies, the social welfare ideals of African socialism remain influential in political discourse.